I. The Philosophical and Historical Foundations of China's Practical Spirit Tradition
The practical spirit of China can be traced back to the pre-Qin period. Confucianism's "investigation of things to acquire knowledge" and "cultivating oneself, regulating one's family, governing the state, and bringing peace to the world" emphasize that knowledge serves practical governance; the Mohist classic *Mo Jing* systematically explores practical knowledge in mechanics, optics, and geometry, reflecting a pragmatic orientation of "promoting the benefit of the world and eliminating its harms"; and Taoism's "following the natural way" provides a holistic view and a concept of harmony. These ideas collectively shaped the cultural foundation of "practical rationality."
Ancient Chinese scientific and technological achievements are the crystallization of this spirit. The Four Great Inventions had a profound impact: papermaking and printing reduced the cost of knowledge dissemination, promoting education and cultural inheritance; the compass aided navigation and facilitated Sino-foreign exchanges; and gunpowder changed the nature of warfare. Furthermore, the Dujiangyan Irrigation System continues to function after more than two thousand years, embodying the engineering wisdom of "adapting to local conditions"; agricultural and technological works such as *Qimin Yaoshu* and *Tiangong Kaiwu* systematically summarized production experience, serving the national economy and people's livelihood; and astronomical instruments such as the armillary sphere and seismograph combined observational and practical functions.
Unlike ancient Greece, which favored abstract speculation, ancient Chinese science emphasized the unity of "technology" and "principle." Shen Kuo's *Dream Pool Essays* records numerous technological observations but rarely contains a purely mathematical axiomatic system. This suited the needs of an agrarian civilization and the governance of a unified state. While the Ming and Qing dynasties lagged behind in basic theoretical development, practical technologies (such as porcelain, silk, and architecture) remained world-leading, and the spirit of craftsmanship was passed down through generations.
After the Opium War, China faced a "great transformation unprecedented in three thousand years." The Self-Strengthening Movement's "learning from the barbarians to control the barbarians" was a modern continuation of this practical spirit. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, breakthroughs in "two bombs and one satellite" were achieved under extreme conditions, demonstrating the institutional advantages of concentrating resources to accomplish major tasks and the tradition of self-reliance. After the reform and opening up, the assertion that "science and technology are the primary productive force" closely integrated the practical spirit with modernization goals.
The core characteristics of this tradition include: problem-oriented – technology serves specific needs, rather than innovation for innovation's sake; holistic thinking – emphasizing system integration and supply chain collaboration; iterative optimization – continuous improvement in practice, rather than pursuing perfect initial startups; and people-oriented – the benefits of technology reach the general public, not just the elite.
II. The Institutionalization and Scale-up of Practical Spirit in the Modernization Process
The reform and opening up in 1978 marked China's entry into a new stage of socialist modernization. The transformation of practical spirit into national capability through institutional design has benchmark value globally.
National strategic planning provides directional guidance. A series of initiatives, such as the "863 Program," the "973 Program," "Made in China 2025," the "Innovation-Driven Development Strategy," and "Science and Technology Self-Reliance," concentrate resources on key areas. High-speed rail development is a prime example: from introducing, digesting, absorbing, and re-innovating, to forming a complete industrial chain, it took only a little over a decade to build the world's largest high-speed rail network, with an operating mileage exceeding 45,000 kilometers, and its technical standards reaching international standards. Such speed and scale would be difficult to imagine without strategic resource concentration.
A super-large market and a complete industrial chain constitute a unique testing ground. China, with its 1.4 billion people, over 900 million internet users, and the world's most complete manufacturing system, enables a technological iteration speed far exceeding that of many countries. The mobile payment example is most convincing: Alipay and WeChat Pay started by solving the inconvenience of cash transactions, rapidly iterating to include QR code payments, credit systems, and smart contracts, profoundly changing the business ecosystem and exporting the "digital inclusion" model globally. This proves that market size itself is a driving force for innovation.
The paths of "parallel innovation" and "from imitation to originality" embody practical wisdom. Early on, low-cost learning was achieved through "market for technology," and later, relying on massive data and the engineer dividend (over a million engineering graduates annually), China achieved a leap from imitation to surpassing. In the electric vehicle sector, China went from following to leading in key technologies such as batteries, motors, and electronic controls, with new energy vehicle production and sales accounting for over 60% of the global market, and companies like BYD and CATL becoming global leaders. This trajectory shows that the advantage of being a latecomer is not a myth, but a realistic path that can be achieved through systematic learning and iterative transformation.
The digital economy has become fertile ground for practical spirit. Short video platforms combine algorithmic recommendations with user-generated content, serving a massive lower-tier market, creating jobs, and exporting Chinese culture. Artificial intelligence applications are being implemented through "AI + Manufacturing" and "AI + Healthcare" to address real-world pain points, rather than remaining merely conceptual. The "Micius" quantum communication satellite has achieved kilometer-scale quantum key distribution, balancing fundamental breakthroughs with security applications.
Overall, the "government + market + society" triple helix model is key. The government provides strategy, funding, and infrastructure; the market drives competition and iteration; and an engineering culture provides micro-level dynamism. This model transforms a pragmatic approach into the core capability of "rapid, large-scale deployment," demonstrating a significant advantage in addressing complex systemic challenges.
III. Typical Case Studies of Contemporary Technological Innovation
High-speed rail and urban rail transit: China's high-speed rail is not only a means of transportation but also a model of systems engineering. Facing complex terrain, engineering teams overcame challenges such as ballastless track and pantograph-catenary interaction through continuous experimentation. The CR400 "Fuxing" high-speed train has achieved regular operation at 350 km/h, has been exported to many countries, and has driven economic development along its routes. This embodies the practical tradition of "adapting to local conditions" combined with modern simulation and materials science, and also proves that in the infrastructure field, system integration capabilities are often more decisive than single-point breakthroughs.
New energy and dual-carbon goals: China has the world's largest installed capacity of renewable energy, and the manufacturing costs of photovoltaic modules and wind power equipment have decreased significantly. A complete industry chain layout, from silicon materials to modules, to energy storage and smart grids, has created a competitive advantage that is difficult to replicate. The "photovoltaic poverty alleviation" project directly serves rural revitalization, benefiting millions of farmers. Innovations such as BYD's blade battery and CATL's Kirin battery, through material and structural optimization, improve safety and energy density, significantly accelerating the global energy transition. These practices demonstrate that technological innovation can be deeply integrated with social equity and ecological goals.
5G/6G and Digital Infrastructure: Huawei and other companies have contributed numerous patents to the development of 5G standards, achieving controllability through independent innovation. More than 4 million 5G base stations support applications such as the Industrial Internet, telemedicine, and intelligent transportation. 6G R&D emphasizes terahertz communication and space-ground integration. This is not only technological leadership but also a pragmatic implementation of the "Network Power" strategy, highlighting the strategic significance of digital infrastructure as a new type of public good.
Artificial Intelligence and Big Data: China ranks among the world's top in AI paper publications and patent applications. Enterprises are rapidly iterating in autonomous driving, smart cities, and content generation. The "AI+" strategy focuses on solving specific scenario problems in manufacturing quality inspection, precision agriculture, and medical image diagnosis, with large-scale models emphasizing adaptation to Chinese corpora and local applications. This application-oriented approach avoids unrealistic "showmanship" and is more likely to generate real economic and social benefits.
Aerospace and Deep Space Exploration: From the Shenzhou manned spaceflight to the Tiangong space station, the Tianwen Mars exploration, and the Chang'e lunar sample return mission, China's aerospace industry has steadily progressed based on the principle of "reliability first." The BeiDou Navigation Satellite System has achieved global coverage, serving countries along the Belt and Road Initiative. This continues the spirit of the "Two Bombs, One Satellite" project while incorporating the vitality of commercial aerospace, demonstrating the possibility of balancing stability and innovation in high-risk fields.
These cases share common characteristics: demand-driven, technology-integrated, rapid verification, and economies of scale. They not only enhance China's comprehensive national strength but also provide low-cost, accessible technology options to countries in the Global South through exports, standards setting, and production capacity cooperation.
IV. Implications of the Chinese Model for the World
China's practices in technological innovation offer the world multi-dimensional and actionable lessons.
First, balancing basic research with applied transformation. The West has an advantage in basic science, while China is more efficient in transformation and scaling. The two can complement each other: China can further increase investment in original innovation, while the West can strengthen its mechanisms for industrializing research results. The global innovation system should not fall into the extremes of an "ivory tower" or purely commercial short-sightedness.
Second, the value of national strategic guidance. Faced with global challenges such as the climate crisis, public health, and supply chain security, appropriately concentrating resources can effectively overcome bottlenecks. China's experience shows that such guidance, when combined with market mechanisms and maintained in a transparent and sustainable manner, can generate strong positive externalities.
Third, the potential of economies of scale and inclusive innovation. Developing countries can learn from China's path, leveraging their demographic and data dividends to achieve technological leaps through digital leverage. Practices such as the "Digital Silk Road" have helped many countries build 5G and smart cities, proving that technology diffusion can be more inclusive.
Fourth, the importance of cultural confidence and technological autonomy. Technological development must be rooted in local culture and practical needs, rather than simply replicating a single model. Craftsmanship, teamwork, and a problem-oriented approach can be new sources of innovation, not obstacles to modernization.
Fifth, a green and sustainable orientation. China's "dual-carbon" practice demonstrates that technological innovation can be highly integrated with ecological civilization construction and provide low-cost solutions globally. This has particular reference value for developing countries addressing climate change. The Chinese model continues to be optimized in areas such as intellectual property protection, international cooperation, and talent mobility. Global science and technology governance should move beyond zero-sum thinking towards openness, sharing, and mutual benefit.